Introduction
This page contains the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) tables related to biotoxins. As a key component of our food safety management system, these documents provide a systematic analysis of potential hazards. Separate tables are available to address the control measures for different types of biotoxins.
Phycotoxins and Marine Biotoxins
Phycotoxins are toxins produced by microalgae, often during harmful algal blooms. These toxins accumulate in filter-feeding shellfish like mussels, oysters, and scallops. Because the toxins are heat-stable and not destroyed by cooking, consumption of contaminated shellfish can cause severe gastrointestinal and neurological poisoning.
Phycotoxins and Biotoxins Hazards Table
| Name | Origin | Food Product | Lethal Dose (μg/kg) | Illness | Regulation* | Preventive Measures | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phycotoxins | |||||||
| Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) |
Diatoms: Pseudo-nitzschia spp. | Shellfish (mussels, scallops, clams, crabs). | Humans: 1-4 mg domoic acid/kg bw. LOAEL (memory loss): 0.9 mg/kg bw (EFSA 2009;7(12):1382) | GI symptoms (vomiting, diarrhoea, pain) within 24h; neurological (confusion, memory loss, seizures) within 48h. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: MLs shellfish flesh. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring of Pseudo-nitzschia & domoic acid in shellfish. Harvest area closures. | Water-soluble, heat-stable. Concern in Europe and globally; increasing incidence. |
| Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP; Saxitoxins) |
Dinoflagellates: Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Pyrodinium spp. | Shellfish (mussels, scallops, clams, crabs). | Humans: Lethal oral dose: 1-4 mg total toxin (EFSA 2009;7(12):1306). | Muscle paralysis, respiratory failure, death. Onset: 30 min - 2h. Mortality: 1-20% without support. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: MLs shellfish flesh. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring of toxic algae & PSP toxins. Harvest area closures. | Water-soluble, heat-stable. Global issue, recurrent in Europe. Many analogues. |
| Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP; Okadaic Acid - OA & Dinophysistoxins - DTXs) |
Dinoflagellates: Dinophysis, Prorocentrum spp. | Shellfish (mussels, scallops, clams, crabs). | Humans: (LOAEL for OA): ~0.3 μg/kg bw (total dose ~20-50 μg) (EFSA 2008;6(1):589). | Severe diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain. Onset: 30 min - several hours. Not usually lethal. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: MLs for OA, DTXs & Pectenotoxins combined in shellfish flesh. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring of toxic algae & DSP toxins. Harvest area closures. | Lipophilic, heat-stable. Common in European shellfish farming. |
| Pectenotoxins (PTXs) | Dinoflagellates: Dinophysis spp. | Shellfish (mussels, scallops, clams, crabs). | Humans: Oral toxicity data limited. Primarily hepatotoxic in animal studies. Mice (i.p. LD50 PTX2): 250 μg/kg bw (EFSA 2009;7(7):1209) | Liver damage in animals. Human GI effects from PTXs alone not clearly established. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: Included in the MLs with OA & DTXs. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring as part of DSP complex. Harvest area closures. | Lipophilic. Concern in Europe. Contribution to human diarrhetic illness less than OA/DTXs, but regulated due to other potential toxicities. |
| Yessotoxins (YTXs) | Dinoflagellates: Protoceratium, Lingulodinium, Gonyaulax spp. | Shellfish (mussels, scallops, clams). | Humans: Acute oral toxicity low. Mice (i.p. LD50 YTX): 100-500 μg/kg bw; (oral LD50 YTX): >5000 μg/kg bw ( EFSA Journal 2009;7(3):1029) | Cardiotoxic in animals. No confirmed human illness from YTXs via shellfish at typical levels. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: MLs shellfish flesh. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring of YTXs. Harvest area closures. | Lipophilic. Found in European waters. Regulated due to potential cardiotoxicity seen in animals. |
| Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP; Azaspiracids) |
Dinoflagellates: Azadinium, Amphidoma spp | Shellfish (mussels, oysters, scallops, clams, crabs). | Humans (Estimated toxic dose AZA1): ~2.3 μg/kg bw (EFSA Journal 2008;6(9):771) | Severe GI symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, cramps). Prolonged illness possible. Potential tumor promoter. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: MLs shellfish flesh. ∙ Reg. (EU) 2019/627: Official controls. |
Monitoring of toxic algae & AZAs. Harvest area closures | Lipophilic. Significant concern in Europe. Many analogues known. |
| Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP;Brevetoxins) |
Dinoflagellates: Karenia spp. (mainly K. brevis). | Shellfish (oysters, clams, mussels) | Humans: Intoxication reported at 2.8-4.8 μg BTX-2 eq./kg bw. (Search result 7.2). Mice (oral LD50 BTX-3): 520 μg/kg bw (EFSA CONTAM Panel, 2009) |
GI & neurological symptoms (tingling, dizziness, temperature reversal). Respiratory irritation from aerosols. Rarely fatal. Onset: minutes to hours. | No specific EU-wide limits. National measures may exist. General Food Law applies. Monitoring in some areas. | Monitoring of Karenia blooms & toxins. Harvest area closures. Avoid recreational harvest during blooms. | Lipophilic, heat-stable. Primarily Gulf of Mexico, NZ. Potential emerging concern in Europe due to Karenia presence. |
| Palytoxin (PlTX ; Group Toxins) |
Dinoflagellates: Ostreopsis spp.; Soft corals: Palythoa spp. | Shellfish (mussels, clams, sea urchins), crabs, fish exposed to blooms. | Humans (Oral ARfD by EFSA): 0.2 μg/kg bw for PlTX + ostreocin-D. Guidance: 30 μg/kg shellfish. | Shellfish (mussels, clams, sea urchins), crabs, fish exposed to blooms. | No specific EU-wide limits. National measures may exist. General Food Law applies. | Avoid seafood from areas with Ostreopsis blooms/Palythoa. Harvest area closures. Avoid aerosol contact during blooms. | Heat-stable. Ostreopsis blooms an emerging issue in some European areas (e.g., Mediterranean). |
| Cyclic Imines (CIs; Spirolides - SPXs) Gymnodimines (GYMs, Pinnatoxins - PnTXs, etc.) |
Dinoflagellates: Alexandrium, Karenia, Vulcanodinium spp. | Shellfish (bivalve molluscs). | Humans: No confirmed poisoning cases. Data limited. Mice (SPXs oral LD50: 50μg/kg bw. (PnTXs oral LD50 mix E/F): 23 μg/kg bw. | Neurotoxic in mice (fast-acting: paralysis, respiratory distress). Human symptoms unknown. | No specific EU-wide limits/ National measures may exist. General Food Law applies. | General shellfish monitoring principles. Research ongoing. | Lipophilic. Emerging toxins. Detected at low levels in European shellfish. Risk assessment ongoing. |
| Other Marine Biotoxins | |||||||
| Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP - Ciguatoxins - CTXs, Maitotoxins - MTXs) |
Dinoflagellates: Gambierdiscus, Fukuyoa spp. | Large predatory reef fish (barracuda, grouper, snapper, etc.) accumulating toxins via food chain. | CTXs (Humans): LOAEL ~0.001-0.0025 μg P-CTX-1/kg bw (EFSA 2010;8(6):1627). MTXs: Extremely potent by injection in mice (LD50 ~0.05 μg/kg bw). | GI, neurological (paresthesia, itching, cold allodynia), and cardiovascular symptoms. Rarely fatal. Onset: 1-24h. | No specific EU-wide limits for CTXs in fish. General Food Law applies. Some regional monitoring (e.g., Canaries, Madeira). | Avoid large predatory reef fish from endemic areas, especially viscera. Monitoring in affected areas. | Lipophilic, heat-stable. Primarily tropical/subtropical; emerging in Europe (Macaronesia). Imported fish also a risk. |
| Tetrodotoxin (TTX) | Marine bacteria (e.g., Vibrio, Pseudoalteromonas spp.). | Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae). Also some gastropods, bivalves, other marine animals. | Humans (MLD): 1-2 mg total dose. Serious effects at 0.2 mg (~4 μg/kg bw). | Potent neurotoxin: tingling (lips, tongue), paralysis, respiratory distress, cardiac arrhythmia. Can be fatal. Onset: minutes to hours. | ∙ Reg. (EC) No 853/2004: Fish: Marketing of Tetraodontidae prohibited. Shellfish: No specific EU limit EFSA (2017) proposed guidance: <44 μg TTX eq./kg. | Prohibition of pufferfish marketing. Monitoring of TTX in shellfish in at-risk areas. | Water-soluble, heat-stable. Concern in Asia; emerging in Europe in shellfish and via invasive fish (e.g., Lagocephalus sceleratus in Mediterranean). |
* More in detail regulations and specific limits available on our platform, check iMIS Food for more information ⬇️
Download and Print the Phycotoxins & Marine Biotoxins Hazards Table
Phytoxins and Plant Toxins
Phytotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by various plants. They can enter the food supply directly (e.g., glycoalkaloids in green potatoes) or through the contamination of raw agricultural commodities, such as when toxic weeds are accidentally harvested with grains. Many of these toxins are heat-resistant and not destroyed by cooking. Ingestion can lead to a wide range of adverse health effects, from acute gastrointestinal distress to chronic organ damage.
| Name | Food Product | Illness | Preventive Measures | Comments | Regulation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs) | Herbal teas, honey, spices, certain salads (e.g., rocket). | Liver damage with chronic exposure. | Good Agricultural Practices to control weeds in the field. | A large family of toxins that contaminate crops from co-mingling weeds. | • Reg. (EU) 2023/915 |
| Tropane Alkaloids (TAs) | Grains (millet, sorghum, buckwheat), soy, herbal infusions. | Dry mouth, dilated pupils, heart rate changes, confusion. | Cleaning and sorting of grains to remove toxic weed seeds. | Contamination occurs when seeds of plants like Thorn apple are accidentally harvested with crops. | • Reg. (EU) 2023/915 |
| Cyanogenic Glycosides | Raw apricot kernels, cassava, linseeds, bitter almonds. | Releases hydrogen cyanide, causing rapid breathing, dizziness, headache, vomiting. | Proper cooking (boiling, roasting) destroys the toxin. | The hazard is the hydrogen cyanide (HCN) released when the plant material is damaged. | • Reg. (EU) 2023/915 |
| Glycoalkaloids | Potatoes (especially green, damaged, or sprouted tubers). | Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and neurological disorders. | Store potatoes in dark, cool conditions. Peel potatoes and avoid green parts. | Cooking does not significantly reduce the content of these toxins. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
| Phytohaemagglutinin (Lectins) | Raw or undercooked legumes, especially red kidney beans. | Extreme nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea with rapid onset. | Soak beans for >5 hours, discard the water, and boil vigorously for at least 30 minutes. | Slow cookers may not get hot enough to destroy the toxin. Canned beans are safe. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
| Erucic Acid | Vegetable oils (rapeseed/canola, mustard oil). | High long-term intake may affect heart health (myocardial lipidosis). | Use of modern low-erucic acid rapeseed (LEAR) varieties, known as canola. | Modern plant breeding has drastically reduced erucic acid levels in rapeseed oil. | • Reg. (EU) 2023/915 |
| Opium Alkaloids | Poppy seeds. | Morphine-like effects: drowsiness, nausea. | Food processing such as washing, grinding, and heating can reduce alkaloid content. | Alkaloid content varies significantly depending on the poppy variety and harvesting method. | • Reg. (EU) 2023/915 |
| Coumarins | Cassia cinnamon, tonka bean. | Liver toxicity with chronic high exposure. | Moderate intake of Cassia cinnamon. Use Ceylon cinnamon, which is lower in coumarin. | A natural flavouring compound found in high amounts in the most common type of cinnamon (Cassia). | • Reg. (EC) 1334/2008 |
| Furocoumarins | Parsnips, celery, parsley, limes, grapefruit. | Can cause skin inflammation with UV light (sunlight). | Moderation of intake. Peeling root vegetables. | Best known for the "grapefruit juice effect," where it can interfere with medications. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
| Oxalates | Spinach, rhubarb leaves, beets, nuts, Swiss chard. | Can contribute to kidney stones. Reduces calcium absorption. | Cooking can reduce oxalate content. Moderate intake of high-oxalate foods. | The reason rhubarb leaves are considered inedible is their very high oxalate content. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
| Goitrogens | Cabbage, broccoli, kale, Brussels sprouts, soy. | Can interfere with thyroid function in specific circumstances. | Cooking deactivates the compounds. Ensure adequate iodine intake. | Risk is very low for the general population with a balanced diet. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
| Phytic Acid | Grains, legumes, nuts, seeds (especially in the bran). | Reduces the absorption of minerals like iron and zinc. | Soaking, sprouting, and fermentation of grains and legumes reduce phytic acid. | Considered an "antinutrient." It can also have some beneficial health effects. | • Not regulated by a specific maximum level |
Download and Print the Phytotoxins & Plant Biotoxins Hazards Table
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